The government has outlined plans to curb rampant wild deer populations which have soared to their "highest level for 1,000 years".
Defra and the Forestry Commission have launched a consultation on new deer management strategies to protect woodland, wildlife habitats and crops.
Proposals including extending the shooting season for stags and developing new markets for wild venison.
The consultation says the UK deer population has grown from an estimated 450,000 in the 1970s to two million today - the highest level for a millennium.
"This brings many risks and issues," it says. "It causes a substantial threat to young trees and woodlands, and therefore the government's tree planting ambitions. It reduces the final timber crop value by 30-50pc through browsing damage.
"It can cause significant crop and agricultural damage, with some individual landowners having lost over £1m per year due to deer damage.
"It can also be harmful to deer themselves, with overpopulation causing malnourishment and allowing diseases to spread more easily."
The proposed new deer management strategy includes action "to curb deer population increases in a sustainable and humane way".
It suggests changes to the Deer Act, which currently includes close seasons for culling of male and female deer, "to allow land managers striving to reduce damage to cull male deer at any time during the year".
It adds: "Existing close seasons for female deer have an important function to protect the welfare of dependant young deer, so we are not proposing to remove these."
Of the six species of wild deer in England, only red and roe deer are native, and the proposals include a review of legislation to enable "more effective control" of the non-native species - fallow, sika, muntjac and Chinese water deer.
There are also plans to review legislation relating to shooting deer at night, as "the availability of high-quality affordable night vision technology has increased the effectiveness and safety of night shooting".
East Anglia is a national hotspot for deer populations, particularly in the Breckland area.
Tim Woodward is regional surveyor for the Country Land and Business Association in the East of England (CLA East), and sits on the regional deer forum.
He said the region has "very large numbers" of deer, and the numbers shot by stalkers each year are not enough to keep up with the animals' reproduction.
"Their numbers have dramatically increased," he said. "We have got more deer in the UK now since before the Norman conquest, and there are no predators for them any more.
"We know they have an adverse impact on tree planting, woodland habitats and flora.
"Nobody is suggesting we should eliminate deer from the countryside.
"They are lovely animals, we all love to see them. But they do significant damage to habitats and woodland and commercial farming interests, and their numbers need managing for their own good."
The sustainable management of the deer population can also support the development of the wild venison market as a "carbon-positive healthy meat", says the consultation document.
"Venison sales are a key part of the deer management cycle and the revenue can help landowners offset deer management costs," it adds.
Mr Woodward said: "I think venison is an under-rated meat and there should be more of it eaten.
"A large proportion of the venison is exported, because British people don't want to eat deer for some reason. There is an element of squeamishness on behalf of the consumer.
"So we will be urging the government to look at how the supply chain can be improved - let's get some large supply contracts organised to get venison into schools and the NHS and the military."
Norfolk Wildlife Trust also welcomed the consultation. A spokesperson said: “The government’s consultation on the proposed deer management strategy recognises that deer populations are an issue on a local and landscape scale.
“Increasing numbers of native and non-native deer species present a challenge to the protection of sensitive wildlife habitats in Norfolk including woodland and fen.
"These areas provide a vital home to a wide range of Norfolk’s most vulnerable wildlife species. It is important that the government carefully considers how best to achieve a healthy deer population alongside protecting special habitats and wildlife.”
The Defra consultation will be open until September 2.
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